?roadway
roadway發(fā)音
[rəudwei]
英： 美：
roadway中文意思翻譯
n.車(chē)行道
roadway常見(jiàn)例句
1 、Where they stopped, dense thickets of cedars and ju nipers and birch crowded the roadway on both sides.───他們停下車(chē)。 車(chē)道兩邊長(zhǎng)滿(mǎn)了茂盛的雪松、杜松和白樺樹(shù)。
2 、Individuals stood waiting five or six minutes before they could cross the roadway, to such a distance did the string of carriages extend.───一個(gè)一個(gè)的人，都得等上五六分鐘，才能穿過(guò)馬路到對(duì)面去，距離雖然只有這么一點(diǎn)遠(yuǎn)，可是有一串串車(chē)馬川流不息。
3 、M.Chen, T.Jochem, and D.Pomerleau, “AURORA: A Vision-Based Roadway Departure Warning System”, Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, Vol. 1, pp.243-248, 1995.───吳宣誼,“雙無(wú)人載具協(xié)同控制與實(shí)驗(yàn)”,臺(tái)灣大學(xué)應(yīng)用力學(xué)研究所碩士論文,中華民國(guó)九十四年七月.
4 、The grouting and bolting technique is designed based on analysis of surrounding rock in roadway and actual conditions in spot.───在分析巷道圍巖特性的基礎(chǔ)上,依據(jù)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)實(shí)際情況,提出錨注加固技術(shù)治理方案。
5 、It may be launched from a runway, roadway, or a truck-mounted catapult.───它能夠從一條跑道、道路或一個(gè)卡車(chē)安裝彈射器發(fā)射。
6 、The car was right in the... in the roadway here.─── 當(dāng)時(shí)車(chē)就在這...在這條道上
7 、Last week firefighters in the Malaysian village of Kampung Jabor were called in to remove the bloated snake (pictured) from a roadway.───上個(gè)星期，消防員們接到**，請(qǐng)他們將一只巨大的蟒蛇移走。
8 、Till you dropped the ring on the taxi roadway.─── 可后來(lái)你把戒指掉在出租車(chē)道上了
9 、It was the roadway with the conveyor at that time.─── 當(dāng)時(shí)是和運(yùn)送道的交叉路口
10 、The roadway is about 12 feet wide, but is narrowed every few yards by little stores , where goods of very conceivable kind are sold.───大路大約有12英尺寬，可是它越來(lái)越窄，因?yàn)槊孔邘状a，就有小攤，這些小攤擺著各式各樣的商品招攬顧客。
11 、Where they stopped,dense thickets of cedars and ju nipers and birch crowded the roadway on both sides.───他們停下車(chē)。車(chē)道兩邊長(zhǎng)滿(mǎn)了茂盛的雪松、杜松和白樺樹(shù)。
12 、The women jostled out of the workshop with their empty lunch-baskets on their arms, milled around at the gate waiting to be searched, and then swarmed out into the roadway.───女工們提著空飯籃擁出了車(chē)間，雜亂地在廠(chǎng)門(mén)口受過(guò)檢查，擁出了廠(chǎng)門(mén)。
13 、A barber had set up his chair in the roadway and was already at work.───一個(gè)理發(fā)匠在街上擺好了椅子，并且已經(jīng)做起活來(lái)了。
14 、Can be used in the mist severe operating conditions( such as express driveway, dense city traffic roadway.───在快速車(chē)道和繁忙城市道路行駛使用雙燃料的公交車(chē)輛、租的士專(zhuān)用。
15 、Can be used in the mist severe operating conditions (such as express driveway, dense city traffic roadway.───在快速車(chē)道和繁忙城市道路行駛使用雙燃料的公交車(chē)輛、出租的士專(zhuān)用。
16 、So, there are actually buildings and roadways that extend beyond the walls of the city.─── 所以實(shí)際上有很多道路和建筑 延伸到了城墻外
17 、Do not stop on the roadway; move in to the side.───別在車(chē)行道上停留; 到邊上來(lái)。
18 、A flock of geese perked down the roadway.───一群鵝挺著脖子在大道上走著。
19 、This paper introduces supporting situation of whorl - steel bolt, wire meshes and beam in 3306 work-face end roadway of Hexi coal mine.───介紹了在賀西煤礦3306工作面尾巷進(jìn)行螺紋鋼錨桿、網(wǎng)、梁支護(hù)試驗(yàn)的情況。
20 、Ramsey police dispatcher said the department had received three calls about the traveling turkeys who also were blamed for causing morning rush hour traffic problems on a roadway.───一名拉姆齊警方接線(xiàn)員說(shuō)，他們部門(mén)已經(jīng)收到了三個(gè)關(guān)于火雞在早上上班高峰時(shí)堵塞交通的**。
21 、The roadway to the school is narrowed by more and more stalls.───到學(xué)校的那條路由于建起了許多小商店變得越來(lái)越窄了。
22 、The biggest challenge for a move like this is always going to be the roadway.─── 這次搬家最大的挑戰(zhàn) 是路面問(wèn)題
23 、The center tramway portion depresses below the roadway elevation.───中間電車(chē)道落低到車(chē)行道以下。
24 、Do not drive close to the pavement or verge; allow room for a pedestrian to step onto the roadway.───勿貼路邊駕駛。不可駛貼行人路或路旁帶,預(yù)留空間,提防行人突然踏入行車(chē)道。
25 、A raised roadway, as across water or marshland.───堤道加高的行道，如穿過(guò)水洼或沼澤的道路
26 、The article introduce the surface test and application underground of dismantling the 305 roadway sealed wall in the Yungang mine.───介紹了用脹裂劑拆除大同煤礦集團(tuán)公司云岡礦305石門(mén)防爆密閉的地面試驗(yàn)方法及井下的具體應(yīng)用。
27 、On our way down here, we stopped in southern Los Angeles just outside the city where there was a water main break and some buckling of the roadway.───在我們到這里的路上，我們?cè)诔鞘型獾穆迳即壞喜康貐^(qū)停留，那里的主水管斷裂，而且道路上有一些隆起。
28 、Do not step onto, stand or walk on the roadway if at all possible.───盡可能避免踏出馬路,或在馬路上站立或步行。
29 、The technology of roadway protection with coal waste residue concrete and application in thin coal seam are introduced.───介紹了煤矸渣混凝護(hù)巷技術(shù)及其在薄煤層中的應(yīng)用。
30 、In underground rock engineerings,the distributing states of tectonic fissures and its development affect greatly on roadway stability.───地下巖石工程中,構(gòu)造裂隙分布狀況與發(fā)育程度對(duì)巷道的穩(wěn)定性影響很大。
31 、Hours after a fiery big-rig pileup on a Los Angeles interstate, the roadway is still closed.───在洛杉磯州際公路上，當(dāng)一輛著火的拖車(chē)與其他車(chē)輛連環(huán)相撞數(shù)小時(shí)后（），高速公路仍然關(guān)閉著。
32 、The main factors affecting roadway driving can be estimated roundly and impersonally by using the synthetic appraisal method of fuzzy mathematics.───合理的掘進(jìn)參數(shù)的確定對(duì)于建設(shè)高效高產(chǎn)現(xiàn)代化礦井具有重要意義,而應(yīng)用模糊數(shù)學(xué)綜合評(píng)判法可以全面而客觀(guān)的評(píng)價(jià)出影響巷道掘進(jìn)的主要因素。
33 、It usually spanned a street or roadway and was Built astride the line of march of a victorious army during its triumphal procession. Most were Built during the empire period.───它通常延伸一條街道或馬路,往往修建在凱旋歸來(lái)的隊(duì)伍的必經(jīng)之路上。許多在帝國(guó)時(shí)期修建。
34 、The DAQ(Data Acquisition) system for automobile roadway test based on wheel force measurement, is a kind of important equipment for vehicle test.───以汽車(chē)車(chē)輪力測(cè)量技術(shù)為核心的汽車(chē)道路試驗(yàn)數(shù)據(jù)采集系統(tǒng),是汽車(chē)整車(chē)試驗(yàn)的重要技術(shù)裝備。
35 、Uh, okay, now both vehicles are off the roadway.─── 現(xiàn)在這兩輛車(chē)都不在公路上了
36 、Canada must be big on golf, since they mark every golf course with big, government signs along the roadway and there were many such signs.───加拿大必須是大的高爾夫球場(chǎng)，因?yàn)樗鼈儤?biāo)志著每個(gè)高爾夫球場(chǎng)大，政府的跡象，并沿巷道有許多這樣的跡象。
37 、A strange man in a brown robe, tied with a whipcord belt, walked along the roadway.───一個(gè)灰袍陌生男人，緊緊系著一根腰帶，在路上走。
38 、Presents the method of supporting soft-rock drifts by releasing pressure with a guided roadway.───介紹了導(dǎo)巷卸壓支護(hù)軟巖巷道的方法。
39 、In different conditions of roadway,suited head of bolt was chose and anchoring force achieved limiting criteria.───不同巷道圍巖條件需選擇適合的錨頭,可滿(mǎn)足施工巷道要求的錨固力。
40 、To finance the bridge, lots along the roadway were rented out to merchants, especially butchers and tanners, to hawk their wares.───為集資重建，路邊的地段出租給商家，尤其是屠夫和皮匠，給他們兜售商品。
41 、They were repaving a long section of the roadway, and traffic was limited to one-way.───他們重鋪一段很長(zhǎng)的巷道，交通僅限于單向的。
42 、A passage, roadway, or bridge that crosses above another roadway or thoroughfare.───上跨路，上跨橋，天橋橫跨在另一車(chē)道或大道之上的通道、車(chē)道或橋梁
43 、A plank-paved roadway was built some 1,000 years ago above water and beneath the rock for salt and rice transport.───古淺道建于長(zhǎng)江水位以上，已有1000年的歷史了，古淺道主要用作運(yùn)輸食鹽和谷物的通道。
44 、Anticipated roadway fatalities alone run in the hundreds.─── 單是預(yù)計(jì)在道路上死亡人數(shù) 就會(huì)達(dá)到數(shù)百之多
45 、In 1997, the Xingtai Mine succeeded in using bolting &boltmesh supporting tech. in coal roadway(supporting the top coal along the bottom).───1997年，邢臺(tái)礦在全煤（沿底托頂煤）巷道采用錨桿加錨索的支護(hù)技術(shù)獲得成功。
46 、It is proved that the floor heave of the roadway is not uniform and the whole working is rotated toward the inclination of coalscam because of the uniformless pressure.───其底臌是不均勻的。同時(shí),巷道整體有按煤層傾向方向的相對(duì)轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)。
47 、Traditional roadway rainwater drain system is one reason of city waterlogs,but the infiltrative form technology for rainwater collection and use has the advantage as follows.───傳統(tǒng)的路面雨水排放系統(tǒng)是城市澇災(zāi)的成因之一,而滲透式雨水收集利用技術(shù)具有抑制暴雨徑流、延長(zhǎng)匯流時(shí)間、減少路面積水等優(yōu)點(diǎn),對(duì)防災(zāi)減災(zāi)能起到重要作用。
48 、The roadway excavation and supporting are crucial techniques in mining engineering.───巷道掘進(jìn)與支護(hù)是采礦工程的技術(shù)關(guān)鍵。
49 、Giant cables are under stupendous strain as the great roadway of the bridge whips about like some fluttering ribbon.───巨大的繩索經(jīng)受著強(qiáng)大的壓力，大橋路面被吹得如同舞動(dòng)的飄帶。
50 、While conveying the coal slope roadway in coal mine well,hydraulic drawwork has become the main equipment conveyance including person.───在煤礦井下采區(qū)傾斜巷道運(yùn)輸中,液壓絞車(chē)已成為一種包含運(yùn)人的主要運(yùn)輸設(shè)備。
51 、Mr Valencia sees the internet as a roadway on which, increasingly, “new vehicles” in the form of software are offering better ways for students to collaborate.───巴倫西亞把互聯(lián)網(wǎng)看做是一個(gè)車(chē)道，其中以軟件形式出現(xiàn)的“新車(chē)”逐漸為學(xué)生合作提供了更好的方式。
52 、Form the angle of traffic fee management,the author discusses the importance of roadway check to collect traffic fee and gives us the material measures.───從交通規(guī)費(fèi)管理工作的角度出發(fā) ,針對(duì)墾區(qū)交通規(guī)費(fèi)征收工作的特點(diǎn) ,論述了道路稽查對(duì)交通規(guī)費(fèi)征收工作的重要性及具體實(shí)施措施
53 、On the basis of industry test,this paper analyses mining feasibility of applying roadway caving method and caving broken mechanism in high gas steeply indined medium coal seams.───在工業(yè)性試驗(yàn)的基礎(chǔ)上,分析了在高瓦斯急傾斜中厚煤層中應(yīng)用巷道放頂煤法開(kāi)采的可行性和頂煤的破碎機(jī)理。
54 、Presently the north wind dropped a little. By now the loose dust had all been blown away, leaving the roadway clean. The rickshaw man quickened his pace.───不一會(huì)，北風(fēng)小了。路上浮塵早已刮凈，剩下一條潔白的大道來(lái)，車(chē)夫也跑得更快。
55 、You must not allow the load to touch the roadway.───不可讓貨物接觸路面。
56 、It is very important for safely tunneling of roadway to apply advanced forecasting technology.───巷道超前探測(cè)、超前預(yù)報(bào)對(duì)于煤礦的安全掘進(jìn)有著非常重要的作用。
57 、A common use of temporary sign is for the signing of road works where construction or maintenance works obstruct the roadway or may be a hazard to traffic.───臨時(shí)標(biāo)志通常設(shè)在正進(jìn)行道路工程阻礙或交通危險(xiǎn)的地方。
58 、But, as soon as the roadway was ready to go, there was another delay.─── 但當(dāng)?shù)缆窚?zhǔn)備好了 又被另一件事耽誤了
59 、The failure mechanics and occurred some problem of sprayed concrete were analyzed in theory,then the roadway supporting form was redesigned for this mine,i.e.───從理論上分析了噴射混凝土破壞的機(jī)理以及噴射混凝土存在的問(wèn)題,進(jìn)而確定了采用錨網(wǎng)支護(hù)的可行性。
60 、Whoever stands by the roadway cheering for Queen Victoria dishonours Ireland.───不管誰(shuí)站在路上為維多利亞女王歡呼，誰(shuí)就會(huì)給愛(ài)爾蘭帶來(lái)羞辱。
61 、His drive hit a tree and caromed off into a roadway.───他擊出的球撞到一棵樹(shù)上而反彈到路上。
62 、He began to cross the roadway towards me.───他開(kāi)始穿過(guò)車(chē)道向我走來(lái)。
63 、This method has been used successfully in the supporting of roadway with ov...───為我國(guó)深井軟巖巷道支護(hù)提供了一條可行的途徑。
64 、With the depravation of geology condition in colliery, the roadway distortion with small protection pillar increases distinctly and it is hard to meet production need.───但隨著煤礦地質(zhì)條件的不斷惡化,采用小煤柱護(hù)巷技術(shù)的巷道變形量明顯加大,難以滿(mǎn)足生產(chǎn)要求。
65 、Most road works involve the temporary narrowing of the roadway and possibily lane closures or closure of the road itself.───因道路工程影響,行車(chē)道大多數(shù)都會(huì)暫時(shí)收窄,某一條行車(chē)或整條道路甚至可能封閉。
66 、The prerequisite of rock burst occurrence is that the elastic energy in coal and rock mass around coal mine roadway and stope has accumulated enough.───沖擊地壓發(fā)生的前提是礦山井巷和采場(chǎng)周?chē)拿簬r體中儲(chǔ)存了足夠的彈性能。
67 、Co-frequency repeater can be used to cover elongated roadway to extend the effective coverage area, thus increase the equipment utilization.───公路等狹長(zhǎng)地帶的覆蓋:達(dá)到基站延伸覆蓋的效果,合理有效的利用基站話(huà)務(wù)資源。
68 、Where they stopped, dense thickets of cedars and ju nipers and birch crowded the roadway on both sides. There wasn't a lilac bush in sight.───他們停下車(chē)。車(chē)道兩邊長(zhǎng)滿(mǎn)了茂盛的雪松、杜松和白樺樹(shù)。眼前沒(méi)有一棵紫丁香。
69 、The roadway is about twelve feet wide, but it is narrowed every few yards by little stalls where goods of every conceivable kind are sold.───市場(chǎng)的路面約有十二英尺寬,但每隔幾碼遠(yuǎn)就會(huì)因?yàn)樵O(shè)在路邊的小貨攤的擠占而變窄;那出售的貨物各種各樣,應(yīng)有盡有。
70 、The idea would be to separate out the different functions of the city with concentric roadways and greenbelts.─── 其理念是在同心圓的基礎(chǔ)上 運(yùn)用道路和綠化帶 將城市按功能進(jìn)行區(qū)域分割
71 、Under the same stress level, the more dense the joint was, the larger the bulking deformation, and the worse the stability of roadway would be.───在相同的應(yīng)力作用下，巖體中節(jié)理越密集，表明巖體越破碎，產(chǎn)生的圍巖破裂區(qū)就越大，圍巖碎脹變形也越大，導(dǎo)致工程的穩(wěn)定性越差；
72 、A special steel spreader beam was used to erect the fabricated cage in its proper position in the roadway structure.───使用一個(gè)特制的鋼托架來(lái)安裝預(yù)制的錨固橫梁的鋼筋骨架，使其就位于上部結(jié)構(gòu)內(nèi)預(yù)定的位置上。
73 、You should follow the Code whenever you need to cross or step onto the roadway even if you are using a pedestrian crossing.───即使你身在行人過(guò)路處,每當(dāng)橫過(guò)馬路或踏出馬路之時(shí),仍要遵守這些守則。
74 、Paratroopers were unable to blow up roadways leading to the beach area.─── 傘兵們無(wú)法 炸毀通往海岸地區(qū)的道路
75 、Ages, have been such crusted. Likes a boundless journey on Tea-Horse ancient roadway.───歲月，已經(jīng)是那樣古老了。古老得就像茶馬古道上的漫漫征途。
76 、Last year the highway was redesigned to broaden the curves and improve roadway visibility.───去年，該公路重新設(shè)計(jì)拓寬了彎道，并提高了路面能見(jiàn)度。
77 、Additionally,it not only can use for roadway dust control,but also can use for various site of heaping floury material dust control,so having a excellent pract...───它不僅可用于路面防塵,而且可用于各類(lèi)散體物料堆放場(chǎng)的防塵,具有較好的應(yīng)用前景。
78 、Don't stop on the roadway; go to the side.───不要停在車(chē)行道上，停到路邊去。
79 、A large vehicle may move to the right first when turning left, it may move into a right-hand lane or use the full width of the roadway.───大型車(chē)輛在路口準(zhǔn)備左轉(zhuǎn)時(shí),可能先向右方移動(dòng),有時(shí)更須要駛?cè)胗?甚至占用整條行車(chē)道。
80 、This paper introduces a method used to forecast the attitude and character of buried fault and its position and displacement in front of mining roadway.───介紹了一種利用斷層影響帶參數(shù)對(duì)掘進(jìn)巷道前方隱伏斷層的產(chǎn)狀、性質(zhì)、斷層位置、斷距進(jìn)行超前預(yù)測(cè)的方法。
81 、Officials said that altogether a 250-yard portion of the upper roadway was damaged.───官方稱(chēng)，共有250碼的上層公路被破壞。
82 、The first two were linked by a bridge over a roadway,and in this bridge were administrative room,club rooms,and a private atelier for Professor Gropius.───前兩部分有一座凌駕于路面之上的橋梁連接，在這座橋中還包括管理部，學(xué)生社團(tuán)和一個(gè)格羅皮烏斯教授的私人工作室。
83 、A mound of earth or stone built to hold back water or to support a roadway.───堤用以阻擋水或支持公路而建造的土堆或石堆
84 、A long line of workers, each carrying two baskets of earth hung from a bamboo pole, filled the roadway.───一長(zhǎng)列的民工每個(gè)人都用竹扁擔(dān)擔(dān)著兩筐土擠在路上走著。
85 、Our products are broadly applied in mining, roadway bolting, road construction and oil drilling fields.───以上產(chǎn)品廣泛用于煤礦開(kāi)采、巷道支護(hù)、道路建設(shè)及石油鉆探等領(lǐng)域。
86 、Don't stop on the roadway; move in to the side.───別在車(chē)行道上停留;到邊上來(lái)。
87 、The paper introduced the construction process of fracture zone of high-angle roadway,it could be used for the analogous roadway-references.───介紹了掘進(jìn)高角度巷道通過(guò)破碎帶時(shí)的施工工藝,可供施工類(lèi)似巷道借鑒。
88 、They began to build a roadway using very large hollow blocks.───他們開(kāi)始用大塊的中空磚塊修建車(chē)道。
89 、Bolt support gives good expression to top slope pressure roadway, it guarantees stability of supporting and driving speed of coal winning.───尤其是在頂幫壓力較大的巷道中,錨桿支護(hù)的優(yōu)越性得到了充分的體現(xiàn),保證了巷道支護(hù)的穩(wěn)定性和回采的快速推進(jìn)。
90 、The main roadway district of Zhaozhuang coalmine,Shanxi Jincheng Coal Group is located in medium to low mountainous area of west piedmont of the Taihang Mts.───山西晉城煤業(yè)集團(tuán)的趙莊礦大巷區(qū),地處太行山西麓中低山區(qū),區(qū)內(nèi)大面積黃土覆蓋,局部基巖裸露,地表莊稼、林木較多,建筑物較為密集,淺層地震地質(zhì)條件較為復(fù)雜。
誰(shuí)有關(guān)于道路方面的英文材料，500左右英文單詞就夠了
When a single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as duplicationor twinning. The original carriageway is changed from two-way to become one-way, while the new carriageway is one-way in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from single track to double track, the new carriageway is not always constructed directly alongside the existing carriageway.
誰(shuí)有關(guān)于道路方面的英文材料，500左右英文單詞就夠了
A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places.[1] Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel;[2] though they need not be, and historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance.[3]
The term was also commonly used to refer to natural waterways that leant themselves to use by shipping. Notable examples being Hampton Roads, in Virginia, and Castle Roads, in Bermuda (also formerly in Virginia
In urban areas roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and route.[4] Economics and society depend heavily on efficient roads. In the European Union (EU) 44 % of all goods are moved by trucks over roads and 85 % of all persons are transported by cars, buses or coaches on roads.
The United States has the largest network of roadways of any single country in the world with 6,430,366 km (2005). India has the second largest road system in the world with 3,383,344 km (2002). People's Republic of China is third with 1,870,661 km of roadway (2004).[6] When looking only at expressways the National Trunk Highway System (NTHS) in People's Republic of China has a total length of 45,000 km at the end of 2006, second only to the United States with 90,000 km in 2005.[
Usage and etymology
In original usage, a "road" was simply any pathway fit for riding. The word “street,” whose origin is the Latin strata, was kept for paved pathways that had been prepared to ease travel in some way. Thus, many "Roman Roads" have the word "street" as part of their name.[9][10] Roads are a prerequisite for road transport of goods on wheeled vehicles
Words with related usage include, Avenue, Boulevard, Court, Drive, Freeway, Highway, Lane, Parkway, Path, Street, Turnpike, and Way.
History
That the first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted, arguing that animals do not follow constant paths.Others believe that some roads originated from humans following animal's trails. The Icknield Way is given as an example of this type road origination were man and animal both selected the same natural line.By about 10,000 BC, rough pathways were used by human travelers.
Historical road construction dating to 4000 BC
Stone paved streets are found in the city of Ur in the Middle East dating back to 4000 BC
Corduroy road (log road) are found dating to 4,000 BC in Glastonbury, England
The timber trackway; Sweet Track causeway in England, is one of the oldest engineered roads discovered and the oldest timber trackway discovered in Northern Europe. Built in winter 3807 BC or spring 3806 BC, tree-ring dating (Dendrochronology) enabled very precise dating. It has been claimed to be the oldest road in the world.
Brick paved streets were used in India as early as 3000 BC[3]
In 500 BC, Darius I the Great started an extensive road system for Persia (Iran), including the famous Royal Road which was one of the finest highways of its time.[15] The road remained in use after Roman times.
In ancient times, transport by river was far easier and faster than transport by road, especially considering the cost of road construction and the difference in carrying capacity between carts and river barges. A hybrid of road transport and ship transport beginning in about 1740 is the horse-drawn boat in which the horse follows a cleared path along the river bank.
From about 312 BC, the Roman Empire built straight strong stone Roman roads throughout Europe and North Africa, in support of its military campaigns. At its peak the Roman Empire was connected by 29 major roads moving out from Rome and covering 78,000 kilometers or 52,964 Roman miles of paved roads.
In the 1600's road construction and maintenance in Britain was traditionally done on a local parish basis.This resulted in a poor and variable state of roads. To remedy this, the first of the 'Turnpike Trusts' around 1706, to build good roads and collect tolls from passing vehicles. Eventually there were approximately 1,100 Trusts in Britain and some 36,800 km of engineered roads. The Rebecca Riots in Carmarthenshire and Rhayader from 1839 to 1844 contributed to having a Royal Commission and the demise of the system in 1844.
Road transport economics
Main article: Transport economics
Transport economics is a branch of economics that deals with the allocation of resources within the transport sector and has strong linkages with civil engineering. Transport economics differs from some other branches of economics in that the assumption of a spaceless, instantaneous economy does not hold. People and goods flow over networks at certain speeds. Demands peak. Advanced ticket purchase is often induced by lower fares. The networks themselves may or may not be competitive. A single trip (the final good from the point-of-view of the consumer) may require bundling the services provided by several firms, agencies and modes.
Although transport systems follow the same supply and demand theory as other industries, the complications of network effects and choices between non-similar goods (e.g. car and bus travel) make estimating the demand for transportation facilities difficult. The development of models to estimate the likely choices between the non-similar goods involved in transport decisions "discrete choice" models led to the development of the important branch of econometrics, and a Nobel Prize for Daniel McFadden.
In transport, demand can be measured in numbers of journeys made or in total distance traveled across all journeys (e.g. passenger-kilometres for public transport or vehicle-kilometres of travel (VKT) for private transport). Supply is considered to be a measure of capacity. The price of the good (travel) is measured using the generalised cost of travel, which includes both money and time expenditure. The effect of increases in supply (capacity) are of particular interest in transport economics (see induced demand), as the potential environmental consequences are significant.
Road building and maintenance is an area of economic activity that remains dominated by the public sector (though often through private contractors). Roads (except those on private property not accessible to the general public) are typically paid for by taxes (often raised through levies on fuel),though some public roads, especially highways are funded by tolls.
[Environmental aspects
Motor vehicle traffic on roads generate noise pollution especially at higher operating speeds. Therefore, considerable noise health effects are expected from road systems used by large numbers of motor vehicles. Noise mitigation strategies exist to reduce sound levels at nearby sensitive receptors. The idea that road design could be influenced by acoustical engineering considerations first arose about 1973.
Motor vehicles operating on roads contribute emissions, particularly for congested city street conditions and other low speed circumstances. Concentrations of air pollutants and adverse respiratory health effects are greater near the road than at some distance away from the road.
Driving on the right or the left
Traffic flows on the right or on the left side of the road depending on the country.[26] In countries where traffic flows on the right, traffic signs are mostly on the right side of the road, roundabouts and traffic circles go counter-clockwise, and pedestrians crossing a two-way road should watch out for traffic from the left first. In countries where traffic flows on the left, the reverse is true.
About 34% of the world by population drive on the left, and 66% keep right. By roadway distances, about 28% drive on the left, and 72% on the right,[28] even though originally most traffic drove on the left worldwide.
Construction
Road construction requires the creation of a continuous right-of-way, overcoming geographic obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel.and may be required to meet standards set by law or official guidelines. The process is often begun with the removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of embankments, bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation) and followed by the laying of pavement material. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building.
After design, approval, planning, legal and environmental considerations have been addressed alignment of the road is set out by a surveyor. The Radii and gradient are designed and staked out to best suit the natural ground levels and minimize the amount of cut and fill.Great care is taken to preserve reference Benchmarks
Roadways are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Storm drainage and environmental considerations are a major concern. Erosion and sediment controls are constructed to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with sealed joints in the road easement with runoff coefficients and characteristics adequate for the land zoning and storm water system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate design flow from the upstream catchment with approval for the outfall from the appropriate authority to a watercourse, creek, river or the sea for drainage discharge.
A Borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a water source should be located near or in reasonable distance to the road construction site. Approval from local authorities may be required to draw water or for working (crushing and screening) of materials for construction needs. The top soil and vegetation is removed from the borrow pit and stockpiled for subsequent rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the excavation area not steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for safety reasons.
Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before construction can begin. Trees in the road construction area may be marked for retention. These protected trees should not have the topsoil within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the area should be kept clear of construction material and equipment. Compensation or replacement may be required if a protected tree is damaged. Much of the vegetation maybe mulched and put aside for use during reinstatement. The topsoil is usually stripped and stockpiled nearby for rehabilitation of newly constructed embankments along the road. Stumps and roots are removed and holes filled as required before the earthwork begins. Final rehabilitation after road construction is completed will include seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the area to be consistent with the untouched surrounding areas.
Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material to spoil, filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or other unsuitable material is discovered it is removed, moisture content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to 90% relative compaction. Generally blasting of rock is discouraged in the road bed. When a depression must be filled to come up to the road grade the native bed is compacted after the topsoil has been removed. The fill is made by the "compacted layer method" where a layer of fill is spread then compacted to specifications, the process is repeated until the desired grade is reached
General fill material should be free of organics, meet minimum California bearing ratio (CBR) results and have a low plasticity index. Select fill (sieved) should be composed of gravel, decomposed rock or broken rock below a specified Particle size and be free of large lumps of clay. Sand clay fill may also be used. The road bed must be "proof rolled" after each layer of fill is compacted. If a roller passes over an area without creating visible deformation or spring the section is deemed to comply.
The completed road way is finished by paving or left with a gravel or other natural surface. The type of road surface is dependent on economic factors and expected usage. Safety improvements like Traffic signs, Crash barriers, Raised pavement markers, and other forms of Road surface marking are installed.
Duplication
When a single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as duplicationor twinning. The original carriageway is changed from two-way to become one-way, while the new carriageway is one-way in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from single track to double track, the new carriageway is not always constructed directly alongside the existing carriageway.
Maintenance
Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration is primarily due to accumulated damage from vehicles, however environmental effects such as frost heaves, thermal cracking and oxidation often contribute.According to a series of experiments carried out in the late 1950s, called the AASHO Road Test, it was empirically determined that the effective damage done to the road is roughly proportional to the 4th power of axle weight .A typical tractor-trailer weighing 80,000 pounds (36.287 t) with 8,000 pounds (3.6287 t) on the steer axle and 36,000 pounds (16.329 t) on both of the tandem axle groups is expected to do 7,800 times more damage than a passenger vehicle with 2,000 pounds (0.907 t) on each axle.
pothole
Pavements are designed for an expected service life or design life. In some UK countries the standard design life is 40 years for new bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is considered in the whole life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30 year milestones. Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-year designs). When pavement lasts longer then its intended life, it may have been overbuilt, and the original costs may have been too high. When a pavement fails before its intended design life, the owner may have excessive repair and rehabilitation costs. Many concrete pavements built since the 1950's have significantly outlived their intended design lives. [39] Some roads like Chicago, Illinois's "Wacker Drive", a major two-level viaduct in downtown area are being rebuilt with a designed service life of 100 years.