?reinstatement
reinstatement發(fā)音
英：[?ri:?n'ste?tm?nt] 美：[?ri:?n'ste?tm?nt]
英： 美：
reinstatement中文意思翻譯
n. 復(fù)原, 恢復(fù)
reinstatement詞形變化
動(dòng)詞第三人稱單數(shù): reinstates |名詞: reinstatement |動(dòng)詞現(xiàn)在分詞: reinstating |動(dòng)詞過(guò)去分詞: reinstated |動(dòng)詞過(guò)去式: reinstated |
reinstatement常見(jiàn)例句
1 、Lawyers from across Pakistan begin a nationwide march to demand the reinstatement of judges dismissed by President Pervez Musharraf during emergency rule last year.───來(lái)自全巴基斯坦各地的律師，開(kāi)始在全國(guó)范圍游行要求法官?gòu)?fù)職，總統(tǒng)穆沙拉夫去年在緊急情況下解散的。
2 、reinstatement model───恢復(fù)模型
3 、Until I'm reinstated, my time's my own.─── 復(fù)職前 我可以任意支配我的時(shí)間
4 、Recovery criteria should define rapid recovery and service reinstatement as a key goal within the designing for recovery phase of design.───恢復(fù)條件應(yīng)當(dāng)將迅速恢復(fù)和服務(wù)復(fù)原定義為設(shè)計(jì)過(guò)程中設(shè)計(jì)恢復(fù)階段的關(guān)鍵目標(biāo)。
5 、Even if the property is recently built, the work involved in reinstatement will be more expensive than the building cost which can be achieved by a builder building on an estate basis.───即使是最近的建造的（抵押）建筑物，重建的工作將比一個(gè)建筑師在房基上建造房子要花費(fèi)更多。
6 、Taxable Receipt or Invoice for repairing or replacement or reinstatement to the third party's damaged property, or other documents which can verify the extent of the damage, if property damage.───如涉及物損，第三方受損財(cái)產(chǎn)的維修或重置發(fā)票或收據(jù)，或其它證明損失程度的文件。
7 、His request for reinstatement was disapproved.───他復(fù)職的請(qǐng)求未獲準(zhǔn)。
8 、A successful plaintiff in an discrimination suit may be able to secure fines, damages, injunctive relief (e. G., Reinstatement or orders preventing further discrimination) and attorneys fees.───在歧視官司中勝訴的原告,可以得到罰款,賠償金,禁止令(例如,復(fù)職或命令防止進(jìn)一步的歧視)還有律師費(fèi)。
9 、reinstatement n.───復(fù)原;
10 、New Technique of Crevasse Repair and Bank Reinstatement under High Speed Water Flow───大流速水流條件下堵口復(fù)堤新技術(shù)
11 、Electroacupuncture Inhibits the Reinstatement of Morphine-induced Conditioned Place Preference in Rats───低頻電針可取消藥物點(diǎn)燃與應(yīng)激誘發(fā)的大鼠條件性位置偏愛(ài)重建的作用
12 、Has any application for or reinstatement of life, critical illness, accident, disability or medical health insurance on your life ever been declined, postponed,───您是否曾于申請(qǐng)壽險(xiǎn)、危疾、意外、傷殘或醫(yī)療保險(xiǎn)或申請(qǐng)復(fù)保時(shí)被拒絕受保、擱置受保、須繳付額外保費(fèi)或修改合約條款？
13 、The Country Parks Authority takes care of its reinstatement and managemenet after the borrowing activites.───于一九八0年，漁農(nóng)處才開(kāi)始接手管理及進(jìn)行與植林回復(fù)景觀的工作。
14 、bank reinstatement───復(fù)岸
15 、During the reinstatement construction, fish and other vertebrates should be translocated upstream of the impacted sites.───修復(fù)工程進(jìn)行期間,應(yīng)把受影響范圍的魚類和其他脊椎動(dòng)物遷往上游。
16 、I don't I have nothing to do with your reinstatement.─── 我和你的復(fù)職一點(diǎn)關(guān)系也沒(méi)有
17 、However introducing unheated winter fresh air via window trickle vents would require the reinstatement of a heating system in each room.───然而通過(guò)窗戶上窄條風(fēng)口引進(jìn)的未加熱的室外冬季新風(fēng)會(huì)使得每個(gè)房間重新加裝采暖設(shè)備。
18 、reinstatement clause of life insurance───[經(jīng)] 人壽保險(xiǎn)的補(bǔ)足保額條款
19 、We need your help to reinstate them.─── 我需要你們的幫助來(lái)復(fù)原這一切
20 、All Latin American countries and Spain (although not the United States) have withdrawn their ambassadors pending Mr Zelaya's reinstatement.───所有拉美國(guó)家以及西班牙（盡管不是美國(guó)）已經(jīng)撤回大使，等待塞拉亞復(fù)職。
21 、Its title from Fu-ching Xianfeng 2007 (1857) when the reinstatement of the alternate Zhi Fu-ching up to eight years Xianfeng (1858) of the Road alternates.───其官銜復(fù)由清咸豐七年(1857)復(fù)職時(shí)的候補(bǔ)知府升至清咸豐八年(1858)的候補(bǔ)道。
22 、But after several rounds of talks, in Dubai and London, this proved insufficient for Mr Sharif, who had demanded their reinstatement by May 12th.───但是，在迪拜和倫敦的幾輪會(huì)談后，結(jié)果無(wú)法讓謝里夫滿意，他要求在5月12日重新任命法官。
23 、I have no idea why, or why they finally reinstated it.─── 我不知道原因 也不知道他們又讓我來(lái)了
24 、But he pulled your deal then reinstated it.─── 但他撤銷了你的協(xié)議 之后又恢復(fù)了
25 、Mayor Koch, attending his second funeral for a law-enforcement officer in four days, said a government that has gone soft on crime shares the blame for the slaying ? and he called for reinstatement of the death penalty.───才不過(guò)四天，葛市長(zhǎng)已在參加第二個(gè)執(zhí)法人員的喪禮。他說(shuō)一個(gè)對(duì)犯罪軟弱的政府應(yīng)對(duì)這種殺戮分擔(dān)責(zé)任??他呼吁恢復(fù)死刑。
26 、I am not leaving your office until you reinstate me.─── 如果你不讓我調(diào)回原職我就不離開(kāi)你的辦公室
27 、Four other countries joined Mr Anselem in arguing that Mr Zelaya's reinstatement should not be a precondition for the OAS recognising the election.───另有四個(gè)國(guó)家也與安塞倫一道，認(rèn)為塞拉亞先生恢復(fù)原職不應(yīng)是美洲國(guó)家組織承認(rèn)該國(guó)大選的前提條件。
28 、Application of Biological Diversity in the Vegetation Reinstatement in the Right-of-Way───生物多樣性在路域植被恢復(fù)中的應(yīng)用
29 、Article 14 In the event that an insurance contract ceases to be valid, the applicant may apply for reinstatement of the contract within two years.───第14條 保險(xiǎn)契約停止效力后，要保人得于二年以內(nèi)申請(qǐng)恢復(fù)契約效力。
30 、I mean, I'm this close to being reinstated.─── 畢竟 我還差這么一點(diǎn)就能拿回執(zhí)照了
31 、and her one chance for reinstatement is Blighted by the mocking witness of the vindictive portraits.───兩幅兇光畢露的肖像那嘲弄人的神色扼殺了她與他言歸于好的機(jī)會(huì)。
32 、THE REINSTATEMENT OF THE STATUS OF GENUSCARYOMYS (THOMAS, 1911 )(RODENTIA: MICROTINAE )───絨?屬Caryomys（Thomas，1911）地位的恢復(fù)（嚙齒目：倉(cāng)鼠科：田鼠亞科）
33 、Effect of 6-OHDA lesions of the dopaminergic mesolimbic system on drug priming induced reinstatement of extinguished morphine CPP in rats───6-羥多巴胺損毀中腦邊緣多巴胺能系統(tǒng)抑制藥物點(diǎn)燃誘導(dǎo)的大鼠嗎啡條件性位置偏愛(ài)消退后重建
34 、surface reinstatement───地表填平復(fù)元
35 、The reinstatement of Lamar Odom into the “Bench Mob” continues to only see better production. Tonight they had 35 points, 17 rebounds and 14 of the Lakers had 19 assists in the game.───奧多姆的“板凳老大”角色扮演的依舊很出色，在他的帶領(lǐng)下板凳們也發(fā)揮出色，一共得到了35分，17個(gè)籃板和19次助攻。
36 、Wood did not say whether Clinton is percifikely specifically urged the rein stagement reinstatement of Chief Justice StrogeryChaudhry.───同時(shí)他稱，不應(yīng)該在一個(gè)和平民主的集會(huì)上出現(xiàn)阻礙。
37 、I hereby declare acceptance of the class sessions, study plan and tuition fee stipulated by the Macau University of Science and Technology upon approval of reinstatement.───如批準(zhǔn)復(fù)學(xué)，本人愿意接受澳門科技大學(xué)所編排之學(xué)習(xí)計(jì)劃、課程時(shí)間及收費(fèi)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。
38 、her reinstatement to her former office followed quickly.───他很快就恢復(fù)了原來(lái)的職務(wù)。
39 、Wood did not say whether Clinton specially urged the reinstatement of Chief Justice Chaudhry.───伍德沒(méi)有說(shuō)克林頓是否特別敦促恢復(fù)首席法官喬杜里的職務(wù)。
40 、Only for the insured applying for the addition, reinstatement, changing policy from individual to joint-life or reduction of.───此欄只供投保人申請(qǐng)?jiān)黾?復(fù)保,更改個(gè)人至聯(lián)名的保單或減低額外保費(fèi)填寫。
41 、reinstatement of tenancy───恢復(fù)租賃
42 、Jin Emperortai shi four years (268 years), served as Royalshi zhong 丞reinstatement, transfertai pu five years.───晉武帝泰始四年（268年）復(fù)職后任御史中丞，五年遷太仆。
43 、In the years following the reinstatement of graduate applications in 1981, the number of students applying for the exam skyrocketed.───從1981年恢復(fù)研究生入學(xué)考試以來(lái)，考研人數(shù)年年激增。
44 、The new law will enable thousands of former Baath party members to apply for reinstatement in the civil service and military.───但是隨著時(shí)間的過(guò)去，白宮意識(shí)到這些限制激化了伊拉克占多數(shù)的什葉派和一度處于統(tǒng)治地位的遜尼派之間的緊張關(guān)系。
45 、context reinstatement───情境復(fù)原
46 、Pavements constructed with clay, natural stone or concrete pavers - Code of practice for the opening, maintenance and reinstatement of pavements of concrete, clay and natural stone───用粘土、天然石或混凝土鋪筑材料建造的路面?；炷?、粘土和天然石路面的開(kāi)口、維護(hù)及復(fù)原的實(shí)施規(guī)程
47 、bank reinstatement method───復(fù)堤法
48 、And he called on the interim president, Roberto Micheletti, to force Congress to hold a vote on his reinstatement to power.───他要求臨時(shí)政府總統(tǒng)米切來(lái)蒂?gòu)?qiáng)迫國(guó)會(huì)針對(duì)其恢復(fù)總統(tǒng)職位投票。
49 、The proposals that have been floated include an offer of amnesty for those responsible for Mr.Zelaya’s ouster in return for his reinstatement and a guarantee that he will not seek another term.───已經(jīng)提出的建議包括赦免那些導(dǎo)致塞拉亞先生下臺(tái)的人，以換取其復(fù)職的可能，并保證他將不會(huì)尋求連任。
50 、For health reasons, application of insecticide and fungicide should all be done outside the building and reinstatement of plants back in terminal should be done 24 hours after such application.───基於健康理由,噴灑殺蟲劑或殺菌劑只可在戶外進(jìn)行,并至少在噴灑24小時(shí)后才可將植物移入室內(nèi)。
51 、and her one chance for reinstatement is Blighted by the mocking witness of the vindictive portraits. No chaste-minded, unsophisticated peasant maid she, But the last dregs of a decadent stock!───兩幅兇光畢露的肖像那嘲弄人的神色扼殺了她與他言歸于好的機(jī)會(huì)。她不再是思想純潔、天真無(wú)邪的農(nóng)家少女,而是墮落家族的殘?jiān)嗄酢?/p>
52 、The Project involves trench excavation, construction of cable trough, cable laying, backfilling and reinstatement works and landscaping works.───工程包括坑道挖掘、興建混凝土電纜槽、電纜鋪設(shè)、回填和修復(fù)工程、和景觀美化工程。
53 、Individuals who have not met the CEU requirement will not be considered for Reinstatement.───沒(méi)有獲得足夠積分（CEU）的將不能恢復(fù)資格。
54 、5.International media rights watchdog Reporters Without Borders says it is shocked and dismayed by the dismissals, and urged the reinstatement of the three editors.───維護(hù)媒體權(quán)利的國(guó)際組織“記者無(wú)國(guó)界”說(shuō)，對(duì)于楊斌的被解職感到震驚和失望，并呼吁恢復(fù)三位編輯的職務(wù)。
55 、Relapse is a major characteristic of drug addiction disorders and it has been well established that stress induces reinstatement of drug seeking in the animal model of relapse.───復(fù)吸是藥物成癮的重要特征,應(yīng)激是誘發(fā)復(fù)吸的因素之一。
56 、Mr.Zardari's decision not to restore the judges may irk lawyers who have campaigned hard for their reinstatement.───扎爾達(dá)里不愿恢復(fù)法官職務(wù)可能會(huì)使強(qiáng)烈要求復(fù)職的法律界人士感到失望。
57 、ENGINEERING OF BLOCKING AND BANK REINSTATEMENT IN THE FILLING SAND FOUNDATION OF JIANGXINGZHOU───江新洲在吹填砂地基上復(fù)堤堵口的工程實(shí)踐
58 、Only those individual who have earned 2.4 CEUs in the three-year period will be eligible for Reinstatement by paying a Reinstatement fee ($500 for AICI members and $1,000 for Non-Members) in addition to any owing Certification Renewal Fees.───只有在獲得2.4個(gè)積分（CEU）并支付恢復(fù)資格費(fèi)用（AICI會(huì)員為500美元，非會(huì)員為1000美元）后，并支付相應(yīng)資格認(rèn)證的更新費(fèi)用，才能恢復(fù)會(huì)員資格。
59 、THE REINSTATEMENT OF ALL BIRTH ANCESTRAL KARMA───所有生來(lái)所攜帶祖先業(yè)力的復(fù)原
60 、On its Web site, the BBC reported that a number of foreign Web sites had been blocked and said it “expressed disappointment at the apparent reinstatement of the ban” since the Olympics.───BBC報(bào)道,為數(shù)眾多的國(guó)外網(wǎng)站已被屏蔽,并表示對(duì)奧運(yùn)會(huì)后的重新封鎖感到失望。
61 、Such a person will only be eligible for reinstatement after three years have elapsed since the last failure. Reinstatement will entitle this person to three more opportunities.───如果考生三次未能通過(guò)同一種考試，他/她將被直接取消該種考試的資格。
62 、Alienation of Productivity and Its Reinstatement───生產(chǎn)力的異化與復(fù)歸
63 、then C or New Company shall not be obliged to reinstate the same, or, as the case may be, complete the same, until the parties hereto have agreed upon the terms for such reinstatement or completion.───如不可抗力的發(fā)生損壞了工程或基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，C或新公司沒(méi)有義務(wù)重新恢復(fù)之，或完成其修建，但雙方就這種恢復(fù)或完成的條件達(dá)成一致意見(jiàn)則例外。
64 、The stream characteristics and the stream biological community structure should be monitored after the reinstatement.───修復(fù)工程完成后,政府應(yīng)監(jiān)察河道特徵和河道生物群落結(jié)構(gòu)。
65 、A Reinstatement Technique for a Sinking Slab Bridge───空心板橋的沉降修復(fù)
66 、He was recently reinstated and he's been mayor before.─── 他最近官?gòu)?fù)原職 以前也做過(guò)市長(zhǎng)
67 、The Block Effect of Total Ervatamia Yunnansis Alkaloids on Reinstatement of Conditioned Place Preference in Mouse with Psychical Dependence on Morphine───云南狗牙花總堿對(duì)嗎啡依賴小鼠位置偏愛(ài)再現(xiàn)的阻斷作用
68 、All construction, dismantlement and reinstatement works shall be completed before May 2006.───所有建造、拆卸及修復(fù)工程均須在二零零六年五月前完成。
69 、Of the reference sections should be studied and the information obtained should be used for the design of detailed reinstatement site plan.───并利用所得資料設(shè)計(jì)詳盡的地盤平面圖,以供修復(fù)之用。
70 、reinstatement of the sum insured───保險(xiǎn)金額復(fù)原
71 、And you will be again, once we get you reinstated.─── 你以后也會(huì)是的 等幫你正名之后
72 、You can print a copy of eBay's Request for Reinstatement by clicking here.───在通過(guò)傳真或者電子郵件發(fā)送賬戶解凍的申請(qǐng)（復(fù)原申請(qǐng)）之前，請(qǐng)先閱讀第二步。
73 、On the stream design and work has been given to the Government. More suggestions will be given to the Government during the reinstatement of Tung Chung Stream.───在東涌河修復(fù)工程進(jìn)行期間,世界自然基金會(huì)會(huì)繼續(xù)就河道設(shè)計(jì)及工程內(nèi)容,向政府提出更多建議。
74 、The opposition says it will press ahead with plans to converge on the capital Islamabad to demand the reinstate reinstatement of the chief justice dismissed by the former president Pervez Musharraf.───反對(duì)派稱，他們將在首都伊斯蘭堡繼續(xù)集會(huì)的計(jì)劃，以求使被前總統(tǒng)穆沙拉夫撤職的首席法官的復(fù)職。
75 、The reinstatement work should include the supervision or monitoring of a competent ecologist.───修復(fù)工程需由具相關(guān)知識(shí)的生態(tài)學(xué)家監(jiān)督。
76 、capital punishment （ a sentence of death ） for murder has been abolished in the u.k, through proposal for its reinstatement are regularly debated by parliament, and it remains the penalt───刑罰制度的主要目的是阻止?jié)撛诘倪`法者，并改造已判的違法者。
77 、iv. the costs of measures of reinstatement of impaired environment, unless such impairment is insignificant, if such measures are actually taken or to be taken;───由于環(huán)境的明顯損害所引起的收入損失,而這種收入來(lái)自環(huán)境的任何利用或享用方面的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益;
78 、They may appeal to the Board for reinstatement, depending on the nature and severity of their breach.───他也可以向理事會(huì)上述要求恢復(fù)自己的權(quán)力，一切都取決于所他違背的條款和嚴(yán)重性。
79 、Yet, whatever their private ambitions, Mr Dahal has offered to join a government of national unity if the president rescinds his reinstatement of the army chief.───不論他們私下的野心是什么，如果總統(tǒng)撤銷他對(duì)軍隊(duì)將領(lǐng)的復(fù)職令，達(dá)哈提出加入聯(lián)合政府的條件。
80 、Keywords dried natural Osumunda japonica thurb;watering and reinstatement;flavorous food;processing technology;───天然薇菜干;復(fù)水還原;風(fēng)味食品;生產(chǎn)工藝;
81 、Ferguson also revealed that he is less than hopeful of signing AC Milan midfielder Rino Gattuso, following Milan's reinstatement into the Champions League.───弗格遜同時(shí)透露隨著AC米蘭能夠參加冠軍聯(lián)賽，簽下米蘭中場(chǎng)加圖索的可能性不是很大。
82 、In 1986 China formally applied for reinstatement as a signatory state in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), so as to make its foreign trade conform more to international practice.───為了與國(guó)際接軌，中國(guó)在1986年正式提請(qǐng)恢復(fù)關(guān)貿(mào)總協(xié)定（GATT）締約國(guó)地位。
83 、His call for a new era of pragmatic problem-solving clearly had a strong emotional resonance for the rapturous crowds that greeted the news of his reinstatement in Beijing.───他對(duì)新時(shí)期的當(dāng)務(wù)之急是解決實(shí)際問(wèn)題的呼吁，在正為他官?gòu)?fù)原職而歡欣鼓舞的北京群眾中間引起了強(qiáng)烈反響。
84 、Today it also emerged that Treviso have booked an appointment with the CONI to demand reinstatement to Serie A.───今天特雷維索也和奧委會(huì)進(jìn)行了會(huì)談，他們要求恢復(fù)意甲資格。
85 、In January 1978, Deng Xiaoping's reinstatement after the first visit, the visit to Myanmar is a country.───1978年1月，鄧小平恢復(fù)原職以后第一次出訪，訪問(wèn)的國(guó)家是緬甸。
86 、(b) reinstatement of the requirement of the condition is not unjust because of a material change of position by the promisee or beneficiary;───and不會(huì)因?yàn)槭苤Z人或者受益人地位的實(shí)質(zhì)性改變使得條件的恢復(fù)導(dǎo)致不公；
87 、A change in the Yugoslav government late in 2000 brought reinstatement in the United Nations and the Council of Europe.───2000年底，南斯拉夫政府更替后，該國(guó)重新獲得了在聯(lián)合國(guó)以及歐洲理事會(huì)中的席位。
88 、The NFL commissioner held off on granting Farve's request for reinstatement for nearly a week, hoping he and the team would resolve their differences.───美國(guó)國(guó)家足球聯(lián)盟委員對(duì)法瑞的復(fù)職請(qǐng)求推遲了將近一周，希望他和球隊(duì)能解決他們之間的分歧。
89 、In the same year, reinstatement of the convene in The Hague, the Netherlands des Nations Conference on behalf of the smoking ban.───同年，復(fù)任在荷蘭海牙召開(kāi)的萬(wàn)國(guó)禁煙會(huì)議代表。
90 、I'm cleared of all wrongdoing and reinstated.─── 我證明了清白也恢復(fù)了職位
誰(shuí)有關(guān)于道路方面的英文材料，500左右英文單詞就夠了
When a single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as duplicationor twinning. The original carriageway is changed from two-way to become one-way, while the new carriageway is one-way in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from single track to double track, the new carriageway is not always constructed directly alongside the existing carriageway.
誰(shuí)有關(guān)于道路方面的英文材料，500左右英文單詞就夠了
A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places.[1] Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel;[2] though they need not be, and historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance.[3]
The term was also commonly used to refer to natural waterways that leant themselves to use by shipping. Notable examples being Hampton Roads, in Virginia, and Castle Roads, in Bermuda (also formerly in Virginia
In urban areas roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and route.[4] Economics and society depend heavily on efficient roads. In the European Union (EU) 44 % of all goods are moved by trucks over roads and 85 % of all persons are transported by cars, buses or coaches on roads.
The United States has the largest network of roadways of any single country in the world with 6,430,366 km (2005). India has the second largest road system in the world with 3,383,344 km (2002). People's Republic of China is third with 1,870,661 km of roadway (2004).[6] When looking only at expressways the National Trunk Highway System (NTHS) in People's Republic of China has a total length of 45,000 km at the end of 2006, second only to the United States with 90,000 km in 2005.[
Usage and etymology
In original usage, a "road" was simply any pathway fit for riding. The word “street,” whose origin is the Latin strata, was kept for paved pathways that had been prepared to ease travel in some way. Thus, many "Roman Roads" have the word "street" as part of their name.[9][10] Roads are a prerequisite for road transport of goods on wheeled vehicles
Words with related usage include, Avenue, Boulevard, Court, Drive, Freeway, Highway, Lane, Parkway, Path, Street, Turnpike, and Way.
History
That the first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted, arguing that animals do not follow constant paths.Others believe that some roads originated from humans following animal's trails. The Icknield Way is given as an example of this type road origination were man and animal both selected the same natural line.By about 10,000 BC, rough pathways were used by human travelers.
Historical road construction dating to 4000 BC
Stone paved streets are found in the city of Ur in the Middle East dating back to 4000 BC
Corduroy road (log road) are found dating to 4,000 BC in Glastonbury, England
The timber trackway; Sweet Track causeway in England, is one of the oldest engineered roads discovered and the oldest timber trackway discovered in Northern Europe. Built in winter 3807 BC or spring 3806 BC, tree-ring dating (Dendrochronology) enabled very precise dating. It has been claimed to be the oldest road in the world.
Brick paved streets were used in India as early as 3000 BC[3]
In 500 BC, Darius I the Great started an extensive road system for Persia (Iran), including the famous Royal Road which was one of the finest highways of its time.[15] The road remained in use after Roman times.
In ancient times, transport by river was far easier and faster than transport by road, especially considering the cost of road construction and the difference in carrying capacity between carts and river barges. A hybrid of road transport and ship transport beginning in about 1740 is the horse-drawn boat in which the horse follows a cleared path along the river bank.
From about 312 BC, the Roman Empire built straight strong stone Roman roads throughout Europe and North Africa, in support of its military campaigns. At its peak the Roman Empire was connected by 29 major roads moving out from Rome and covering 78,000 kilometers or 52,964 Roman miles of paved roads.
In the 1600's road construction and maintenance in Britain was traditionally done on a local parish basis.This resulted in a poor and variable state of roads. To remedy this, the first of the 'Turnpike Trusts' around 1706, to build good roads and collect tolls from passing vehicles. Eventually there were approximately 1,100 Trusts in Britain and some 36,800 km of engineered roads. The Rebecca Riots in Carmarthenshire and Rhayader from 1839 to 1844 contributed to having a Royal Commission and the demise of the system in 1844.
Road transport economics
Main article: Transport economics
Transport economics is a branch of economics that deals with the allocation of resources within the transport sector and has strong linkages with civil engineering. Transport economics differs from some other branches of economics in that the assumption of a spaceless, instantaneous economy does not hold. People and goods flow over networks at certain speeds. Demands peak. Advanced ticket purchase is often induced by lower fares. The networks themselves may or may not be competitive. A single trip (the final good from the point-of-view of the consumer) may require bundling the services provided by several firms, agencies and modes.
Although transport systems follow the same supply and demand theory as other industries, the complications of network effects and choices between non-similar goods (e.g. car and bus travel) make estimating the demand for transportation facilities difficult. The development of models to estimate the likely choices between the non-similar goods involved in transport decisions "discrete choice" models led to the development of the important branch of econometrics, and a Nobel Prize for Daniel McFadden.
In transport, demand can be measured in numbers of journeys made or in total distance traveled across all journeys (e.g. passenger-kilometres for public transport or vehicle-kilometres of travel (VKT) for private transport). Supply is considered to be a measure of capacity. The price of the good (travel) is measured using the generalised cost of travel, which includes both money and time expenditure. The effect of increases in supply (capacity) are of particular interest in transport economics (see induced demand), as the potential environmental consequences are significant.
Road building and maintenance is an area of economic activity that remains dominated by the public sector (though often through private contractors). Roads (except those on private property not accessible to the general public) are typically paid for by taxes (often raised through levies on fuel),though some public roads, especially highways are funded by tolls.
[Environmental aspects
Motor vehicle traffic on roads generate noise pollution especially at higher operating speeds. Therefore, considerable noise health effects are expected from road systems used by large numbers of motor vehicles. Noise mitigation strategies exist to reduce sound levels at nearby sensitive receptors. The idea that road design could be influenced by acoustical engineering considerations first arose about 1973.
Motor vehicles operating on roads contribute emissions, particularly for congested city street conditions and other low speed circumstances. Concentrations of air pollutants and adverse respiratory health effects are greater near the road than at some distance away from the road.
Driving on the right or the left
Traffic flows on the right or on the left side of the road depending on the country.[26] In countries where traffic flows on the right, traffic signs are mostly on the right side of the road, roundabouts and traffic circles go counter-clockwise, and pedestrians crossing a two-way road should watch out for traffic from the left first. In countries where traffic flows on the left, the reverse is true.
About 34% of the world by population drive on the left, and 66% keep right. By roadway distances, about 28% drive on the left, and 72% on the right,[28] even though originally most traffic drove on the left worldwide.
Construction
Road construction requires the creation of a continuous right-of-way, overcoming geographic obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel.and may be required to meet standards set by law or official guidelines. The process is often begun with the removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of embankments, bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation) and followed by the laying of pavement material. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building.
After design, approval, planning, legal and environmental considerations have been addressed alignment of the road is set out by a surveyor. The Radii and gradient are designed and staked out to best suit the natural ground levels and minimize the amount of cut and fill.Great care is taken to preserve reference Benchmarks
Roadways are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Storm drainage and environmental considerations are a major concern. Erosion and sediment controls are constructed to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with sealed joints in the road easement with runoff coefficients and characteristics adequate for the land zoning and storm water system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate design flow from the upstream catchment with approval for the outfall from the appropriate authority to a watercourse, creek, river or the sea for drainage discharge.
A Borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a water source should be located near or in reasonable distance to the road construction site. Approval from local authorities may be required to draw water or for working (crushing and screening) of materials for construction needs. The top soil and vegetation is removed from the borrow pit and stockpiled for subsequent rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the excavation area not steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for safety reasons.
Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before construction can begin. Trees in the road construction area may be marked for retention. These protected trees should not have the topsoil within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the area should be kept clear of construction material and equipment. Compensation or replacement may be required if a protected tree is damaged. Much of the vegetation maybe mulched and put aside for use during reinstatement. The topsoil is usually stripped and stockpiled nearby for rehabilitation of newly constructed embankments along the road. Stumps and roots are removed and holes filled as required before the earthwork begins. Final rehabilitation after road construction is completed will include seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the area to be consistent with the untouched surrounding areas.
Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material to spoil, filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or other unsuitable material is discovered it is removed, moisture content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to 90% relative compaction. Generally blasting of rock is discouraged in the road bed. When a depression must be filled to come up to the road grade the native bed is compacted after the topsoil has been removed. The fill is made by the "compacted layer method" where a layer of fill is spread then compacted to specifications, the process is repeated until the desired grade is reached
General fill material should be free of organics, meet minimum California bearing ratio (CBR) results and have a low plasticity index. Select fill (sieved) should be composed of gravel, decomposed rock or broken rock below a specified Particle size and be free of large lumps of clay. Sand clay fill may also be used. The road bed must be "proof rolled" after each layer of fill is compacted. If a roller passes over an area without creating visible deformation or spring the section is deemed to comply.
The completed road way is finished by paving or left with a gravel or other natural surface. The type of road surface is dependent on economic factors and expected usage. Safety improvements like Traffic signs, Crash barriers, Raised pavement markers, and other forms of Road surface marking are installed.
Duplication
When a single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as duplicationor twinning. The original carriageway is changed from two-way to become one-way, while the new carriageway is one-way in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from single track to double track, the new carriageway is not always constructed directly alongside the existing carriageway.
Maintenance
Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration is primarily due to accumulated damage from vehicles, however environmental effects such as frost heaves, thermal cracking and oxidation often contribute.According to a series of experiments carried out in the late 1950s, called the AASHO Road Test, it was empirically determined that the effective damage done to the road is roughly proportional to the 4th power of axle weight .A typical tractor-trailer weighing 80,000 pounds (36.287 t) with 8,000 pounds (3.6287 t) on the steer axle and 36,000 pounds (16.329 t) on both of the tandem axle groups is expected to do 7,800 times more damage than a passenger vehicle with 2,000 pounds (0.907 t) on each axle.
pothole
Pavements are designed for an expected service life or design life. In some UK countries the standard design life is 40 years for new bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is considered in the whole life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30 year milestones. Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-year designs). When pavement lasts longer then its intended life, it may have been overbuilt, and the original costs may have been too high. When a pavement fails before its intended design life, the owner may have excessive repair and rehabilitation costs. Many concrete pavements built since the 1950's have significantly outlived their intended design lives. [39] Some roads like Chicago, Illinois's "Wacker Drive", a major two-level viaduct in downtown area are being rebuilt with a designed service life of 100 years.