?neurological
neurological發(fā)音
英：[?nj??r??l?d??kl] 美：[?nj?r??lɑd??k?l]
英： 美：
neurological中文意思翻譯
adj. 神經(jīng)病學(xué)的
neurological常見例句
1 、Chemoreception - The neurological process of receiving information from a chemical signal.───Chemoreception -神經(jīng)過程中接收信息的化學(xué)信號(hào)。
2 、Unexplained complications associated with drug treatments with these tumors should alert physicians to an undiagnosed neurological porphyria.───上次我從會(huì)展中心附近接了個(gè)預(yù)訂業(yè)務(wù)，匆匆趕到約定地點(diǎn)，乘客卻沒影了。
3 、The neurological function of spinal cord was gradedaccording to Gale combined behavioral score (CBS).───Gale綜合行為計(jì)分法（CBS）進(jìn)行脊髓神經(jīng)功能評(píng)分。
4 、Rett syndrome is a complex neurological disorder that was first described in 1966 by Andreas Rett, an Austrian doctor.───1966年，一位奧地利醫(yī)生AndreasRett（安德里亞。雷特）第一次描述了一種復(fù)雜的神經(jīng)紊亂綜合征，雷特氏綜合癥。
5 、Hydrogen sulfide, another chemical released from animal waste, can cause irreversible neurological damage, even at low levels.───另一個(gè)動(dòng)物排泄物釋放的化學(xué)物硫化氫，即使?jié)舛容^低，也會(huì)導(dǎo)致不可逆轉(zhuǎn)的神經(jīng)損害。
6 、When pure oxygen is inhaled at pressures greater than 2 or 3 atmospheres, a characteristic neurological syndrome can be observed.───當(dāng)吸入壓力大于2或3個(gè)大氣壓的純氧時(shí)，可以觀察到典型的神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)癥狀。
7 、Different dosages of LMWH could effectively improve neurological impairment and the prognosis of patients with ACI.───不同劑量LMWH均可改善ACI患者的神經(jīng)功能和預(yù)后。
8 、Dysgraphia is a neurological disorder that generally appears when children are first learning to write .───書寫困難是一中神經(jīng)混亂它通常是在孩子們第一次學(xué)習(xí)書寫的時(shí)候出現(xiàn)的。
9 、Additional tumour of thyroid pathological changes, vertical midriff and centre, all round neurological pathological changes also can cause cracked.───另外甲狀腺病變、縱膈腫瘤以及中樞、周圍神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)病變等也會(huì)引起聲音嘶啞。
10 、Neurological deficit was found in 9 cases in group B,while no case in group A.───B組有9例患者術(shù)后即刻出現(xiàn)神經(jīng)功能障礙加重,而A組未出現(xiàn)類似病例。
11 、Sudden impairment of neurological function, especially that resulting from a cerebral hemorrhage; a stroke.───中風(fēng)神經(jīng)功能的突然損害，尤指因腦損傷而導(dǎo)致；中風(fēng)
12 、Sc?NTFs could improve neurological outcome after traumatic spinal cord injury in rats.───Sc－NTFs使脊髓損傷后神經(jīng)功能有顯著改善。
13 、Autism is a little-understood neurological and behavior syndrome that interferes with a child's ability to relate or interact with others.───孤獨(dú)癥是一種知之甚少的精神行為綜合癥，這種病損害了兒童與他人相處及互動(dòng)的能力。
14 、The emphasis is laid on the operational validity and the neurological plausibility.───但該系統(tǒng)對神經(jīng)元的操作模擬之處在初級(jí)階段，離真正神經(jīng)元的操作還尚待時(shí)日。
15 、...this is the neurology equivalent of a holeinone.─── 從神經(jīng)學(xué)上說簡直不可思議
16 、Is the epidural analgesia to blame when it comes to neurological complications following labor?───產(chǎn)后發(fā)生神經(jīng)并發(fā)癥時(shí)硬膜外鎮(zhèn)痛受指責(zé)?
17 、Our insights into the neurological basis of synesthesia could help explain some of the creativity of painters, poets and novelists.───對于聯(lián)覺的神經(jīng)作用基礎(chǔ)有所了解，有助于解釋一些畫家、詩人以及**家的創(chuàng)造性。
18 、Studies on generalist genes could lead to important adances in neurological research.───在“通才”基因方面的研究能夠?qū)е律窠?jīng)病學(xué)研究的極大進(jìn)步。
19 、Do you have any neurological problems such as weakness or sensory, visual, coordination, balance, or memory deficits that we have not yet discussed?───醫(yī):你有諸如失眠、感覺、視覺、協(xié)調(diào)、平衡或者健忘等我們先前沒有探討過的神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)癥狀嗎?
20 、Your idea of space and time is determined by your neurological structure.───你們的空間和時(shí)間的觀念由你們的神經(jīng)結(jié)構(gòu)決定。
21 、Strive to build the spirit of neurological products to promote the professionalization of the company.───努力打造精神、神經(jīng)科系列產(chǎn)品最專業(yè)化的**公司。
22 、Observation on Neurological Behaviour Development of Neonates with Diabetic Mother in Pragnancy.───妊娠糖尿病母親所生新生兒神經(jīng)行為發(fā)育觀察。
23 、The main postoperative neurological complications after CPB surgery are CVDC, most of which are ischemic cerebrovascular disease.───心臟手術(shù)后神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)合并癥以腦血管病為主，且多數(shù)為缺血性腦血管病。
24 、The proper use of low dose L-NNA was useful to the recovery of the neurological function after TBI and reduced the cell's death in the hippcampus.───小劑量非選擇性抑制劑可明顯改善傷后大鼠的神經(jīng)功能，減少海馬神經(jīng)細(xì)胞的繼發(fā)性壞死。
25 、In MS,neurological inflammatory diseases and non-inflammatory diseases,the positive rate of CSF-restricted OCB were 35.3%,39.6% and 4.5% respectively.───CSF OCB**率在MS、神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)炎性疾患及神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)非炎性疾患中分別為 3 5 3%、3 9 6%及 4 5%。
26 、Adhesion after repair of spina bifida cystica could lead to tethered cord syndrome, resulting in deterioration of neurological function.───先天性囊性脊柱裂手術(shù)后因纖維瘢痕粘連可造成脊髓栓系 ,產(chǎn)生神經(jīng)損害癥狀或原有癥狀進(jìn)一步加重。
27 、Subproject 62 documents “certain kinds of radio frequency energy have been found to effect reversible neurological changes in chimpanzees.───62個(gè)分項(xiàng)目的檔案“相當(dāng)種類的無線電波能被發(fā)現(xiàn)在黑猩猩在可逆神經(jīng)學(xué)的變化上的效果。”
28 、In other cases, there is clearly a neurological component to the urinary retention, which requires more than symptomatic relief and antiviral therapy.───在其他情況下,顯然有部分的神經(jīng)尿潴留、以上癥狀,需要救濟(jì)和抗病毒藥治療。
29 、At the chronological age of 61 months, Valentina's neurological age was 58.42 months, which is 95 percent of normality.───在Valentina61個(gè)月的時(shí)候，她的神經(jīng)學(xué)年齡已經(jīng)達(dá)到58.42個(gè)月，這已經(jīng)接近正常水平的95%了。
30 、Learning disabilities are neurological disorders that affect different skills.───學(xué)習(xí)障礙是能影響不同技能的神經(jīng)紊亂。
31 、The patient made a full neurological recovery within 10 weeks.───10周內(nèi)患者獲得了神經(jīng)學(xué)上的完全康復(fù)。
32 、But others can cause severe stomach and intestinal problems as well as neurological disorders and even death in people.───但其些毒素對人來說可引起嚴(yán)重的胃腸道疾病，以及神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)紊亂，甚至死亡。
33 、"It causes weakness, waxy pallor, shiny tongue, and stomach, intestinal, and neurological problems.───會(huì)引起虛弱，蠟樣蒼白，舌光滑以及胃部、腸內(nèi)和神經(jīng)方面的病癥。
34 、Neurological findings in elderly hypertensie patients with asymmetrical pulses or cardiac murmur suggest dissection.───在中老年高血壓患者，且脈搏不對稱或有心臟雜音的患者中，其神經(jīng)病學(xué)所見暗示可能有夾層存在。
35 、I want his neurological research to complete my own.─── 我想要他對神經(jīng)學(xué)的研究成果 完善我的研究
36 、The neurological level of injury in SCI patients is defined as the most caudal segment that both sensory and motor function are normal.───在新版手冊中，除對相關(guān)名詞予以明確定義外，在神經(jīng)學(xué)檢查方面，則包括感覺與運(yùn)動(dòng)機(jī)能兩部分。
37 、Neurological findings in elderly hypertensive patients with asymmetrical pulses or cardiac murmur suggest dissection.───在中老年高血壓患者，且心律不齊或有心臟雜音的患者中，其神經(jīng)病學(xué)所見暗示可能有夾層存在。
38 、Neurological illnesses sometimes defy understanding, Dr.Lachance said, and this seemed to be one of them.───Lachance博士說，神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)疾患有時(shí)讓人費(fèi)解，這個(gè)病，好像就是其中一例。
39 、Dysgraphia is a neurological(newer logical)disorder that generally appears when children are first learning to write.───書寫綜合征是一個(gè)神經(jīng)學(xué)上的紊亂，經(jīng)常在孩子剛開始學(xué)寫字時(shí)表現(xiàn)。
40 、Neurological finetuning, as I like to call it.─── 神經(jīng)微調(diào) 我喜歡這樣叫它
41 、In the near future we will likely have prevention plans that are personalized based on genetic, metabolic and neurological information.───在不遠(yuǎn)的將來，我們可能會(huì)有一些個(gè)性化的基于基因、新陳代謝和神經(jīng)信息的預(yù)防計(jì)劃。
42 、Hyponatremia is the most frequent electrolyte disorder in critically neurological patients.───低鈉血癥是神經(jīng)科重癥患者最常出現(xiàn)的電解質(zhì)紊亂。
43 、The former genes cause neurological diseases, such as Tay-Sachs, Gaucher's and Niemann-Pick.───前者會(huì)引發(fā)神經(jīng)性疾病，如泰薩二氏病、腦苷脂沉積病和神經(jīng)鞘**脂沉積??；
44 、"Today a patient goes from initial evaluation to CAT scan and neurological evaluation to treatment in only 45 minutes on average.───“如今，從初診到造影掃描，從神經(jīng)病學(xué)家的診斷到治療，平均只需45分鐘?！?/p>
45 、Human body are as a result of,those diseases neurological get hurt and cause?───人體那些疾病是由于神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)受傷而引起的？
46 、Extend gymnastics is OK also and soft tendon, ligament, articulatory, activity is neurological.───伸展體操也可以柔軟肌腱、韌帶、關(guān)節(jié)、活動(dòng)神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)。
47 、Dysgraphia is a neurological disorder that generally appears when children are frist learning to write.───書寫障礙癥是一種神經(jīng)上的疾病，通常出現(xiàn)在孩子第一次學(xué)習(xí)書寫的時(shí)候。
48 、I think it's affecting you differently, neurologically.─── 你不一樣 你可能表現(xiàn)在神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)方面
49 、Although partial functional recovery happened with time, residual neurological deficits were detectible at 3 months.───盡管隨著時(shí)間流逝，部分神經(jīng)功能出現(xiàn)恢復(fù)，但殘留的神經(jīng)功能缺損在3個(gè)月時(shí)仍能檢測到。
50 、None of them had a history of audiological or neurological disease.───他們沒有一個(gè)有了了一個(gè)聽覺的或神經(jīng)學(xué)疾病的病史。
51 、Whereas disease pathoanatomy dictates the surgical approach, preoperative neurological status does not necessarily implicate a specific technique.───盡管疾病的病理解剖學(xué)特點(diǎn)能夠決定采取何種手術(shù)入路，但術(shù)前神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)狀況卻未必能提示關(guān)于手術(shù)入路選擇的信息。
52 、Huntington's Disease: Huntington's disease is a genetically inherited neurological disease that can cause dementia.───亨廷頓氏病:亨廷頓氏病是一種會(huì)引發(fā)癡呆癥的遺傳性神經(jīng)疾病。
53 、I believed he had a neurological death sentence.─── 我以為他神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)有問題 沒救了
54 、Brain tissue was taken out to undergo TTC and HE staining and neurological deficit sign scores were performed.───取腦組織作TTC染色和HE染色，并進(jìn)行神經(jīng)功能缺陷體征評(píng)分。
55 、Dysgraphia is a neural logical neurological disorder that generally appears when children are first learning to write.───書寫困難癥是一種神經(jīng)學(xué)上的失調(diào)，它普遍會(huì)在兒童第一次學(xué)習(xí)寫作的時(shí)候出現(xiàn)。
56 、The center is taking aim at neurological diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and diabetic neuropathy.───中心集中力量進(jìn)行神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)疾病的藥物開發(fā)，包括阿爾茨海默氏癥、帕金森氏癥、肌萎縮側(cè)索硬化、糖尿病性神經(jīng)病等。
57 、Clinical neurological function wad assessed with combined behavioral score (CBS).───應(yīng)用聯(lián)合行為評(píng)分(Combined behavioral score， CBS)評(píng)價(jià)脊髓神經(jīng)運(yùn)動(dòng)功能。
58 、Preoperative and postoperative neurological examination, brain computed tomography(CT) scan, and cognitive function tests were performed.───兩組均行術(shù)前、術(shù)后神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)物理檢查、顱腦計(jì)算機(jī)體層攝影 (CT)和認(rèn)知能力測驗(yàn)比較。
59 、Yeah, it's a very uncommon neurological phenomenon.─── 是的 這是一種非常罕見的 神經(jīng)方面的情況
60 、He'd been rescued by a Blackfoot Indian,had lain unconscious for six days in a Montana hospital's intensive care unit,and ended up with neurological damage and a blind right eye.───在蒙大拿一家醫(yī)院的特別護(hù)理室昏迷了六天，最終還是留下神經(jīng)損傷和右眼失明的后遺癥。
61 、The book will be of interest to physicians and surgeons caring for neurological patients at each stage of their career.───書將使內(nèi)科醫(yī)生和外科醫(yī)生在他們的頭班的每個(gè)階段照顧神經(jīng)病學(xué)的病患感興趣。
62 、What are neurological disorders?───什么是神經(jīng)障礙?
63 、The accidents resulted in 4 deaths (3.33%, 4/120), 2 permanent neurological deficits (1.67%), and 4 transitory neurological deficits (3.33%).───因并發(fā)癥而死亡4例(3.33%)，永久性神經(jīng)功能障礙2例(1.67%)；一過性神經(jīng)功能障礙4例(3.33%)。
64 、Former and main it is voltaic harm, it can destroy human body interior to organize, be like heart, respiratory system, neurological etc.───前者主要是電流傷害,它可破壞人體內(nèi)部組織,如心臟、呼吸系統(tǒng)、神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)等。
65 、that lack of feeling could be neurological.─── 他沒有知覺可能是神經(jīng)性的
66 、For much of the 20th century, the search for a neurological basis for hysteria was ignored.───20世紀(jì)的大多時(shí)期，癔病神經(jīng)學(xué)上的基礎(chǔ)的研究被忽視。
67 、The neurological development sequence in the rat and human are similar, with the newborn rat CNS approximating that of the 24 week human fetus (1).───大鼠與人類的神經(jīng)學(xué)形成過程類似，新生大鼠CNS相當(dāng)于人類胎兒24周左右[1]。
68 、They say the unidentified disease attacks the kidneys and causes neurological damage.───他們說，這種不明疾病侵害患者腎臟，導(dǎo)致神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)損傷。
69 、The main effects are neurological, causing headaches, memory loss and also sleeping disorders.───可知:手機(jī)主要對一個(gè)人的神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生影響,而。
70 、I am here to do a neurological examination of those girls.─── 我來給那些女孩做神經(jīng)檢查
71 、Sudden impairment of neurological function,especially that resulting from a cerebral hemorrhage;a stroke.───中風(fēng)神經(jīng)功能的突然損害，尤指因腦損傷而導(dǎo)致;中風(fēng)
72 、He believed that hysteria was the result of a weak neurological system which was hereditary.───他相信歇斯底里是家族遺傳下來的神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)衰弱所導(dǎo)致的結(jié)果。
73 、Previous correlational studies have suggested that there is a significant relationship between neurological soft signs and neurocognitive functions.───以前的相關(guān)研究發(fā)現(xiàn)神經(jīng)軟體征和神經(jīng)認(rèn)知功能之間存在較為顯著的相關(guān)。
74 、Meditation may sometimes give problems for people suffering from mental diseases, epilepsy, serious heart problems or neurological diseases.───冥想有時(shí)可能給問題的人患有精神疾病，癲癇，嚴(yán)重的心臟問題或神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)疾病。
75 、And he confided in me that she had a neurological disease, similar to an early onset dementia or Alzheimers.───他跟我透露,其實(shí)她得了神經(jīng)方面的毛病,類似早期的老人癡呆癥。
76 、NPE should be on the list of differential diagnoses in patients with bilateral alveolar infiltration after a neurological event.───因此，在中樞神經(jīng)傷害后，若病人生成雙側(cè)肺浸潤變化，應(yīng)將神經(jīng)性肺水腫列為鑒別診斷之一。
77 、He probably thought you had a neurological disorder.─── 搞不好他以為你視神經(jīng)紊亂
78 、Patients who hae been treated with Rituxan and present or deelop new neurological signs or symptoms should be ealuated for PML.───已服用利妥昔單抗的患者并存在或發(fā)生新的神經(jīng)體征或癥狀的患者應(yīng)評(píng)估是否患有PML。
79 、Dysgraphia is a neurological disorder that generally appears when children are first learning to write.───它是一種神經(jīng)方面的混亂通常會(huì)在兒童第一次學(xué)習(xí)書寫時(shí)出現(xiàn)。
80 、"This is the first study of the neurological reactions to human touch in a threatening situation." Said Dr. Coan.───可恩博士說:“這一研究首次對人在受到威脅的情況下進(jìn)行身體接觸所產(chǎn)生的神經(jīng)學(xué)反應(yīng)進(jìn)行了探究。
81 、Multiple sclerosis is the most common neurological condition affecting young adults.───多發(fā)性硬化癥是年輕人最常見的一種神經(jīng)疾病。
82 、The syndrome of Fenghuo Shangrao was differ from others in score of neurological deficits (P───中臟腑患者的神經(jīng)功能缺損程度評(píng)分明顯高于中經(jīng)絡(luò)患者(P
83 、Two thoracic SCI had only prolong latencies in SEP, but no any neurological recovery at all.───但為那些感覺、運(yùn)動(dòng)損傷程度不相等的病人則無法作任何有效的預(yù)估。
84 、She was a well-groomed woman who was alert and friendly. General and elemental neurological exams were normal.───她是一位儀表整潔的女性，敏銳而友好。一般和專科神經(jīng)檢查是正常的。
85 、The neurological impairment was evaluated with Longa’s Scale 24 hours after MCAO just before decapitation.───各組動(dòng)物在MCAO后24h進(jìn)行Longa評(píng)分，隨即經(jīng)心臟灌流，取腦組織，又經(jīng)4%多聚甲醛固定后，依次經(jīng)過20%和30%的蔗糖溶液脫水制冰凍切片，切片保存在原位雜交保護(hù)液中。
86 、Fei peptide can make inside neurological the influence that come down undisturbedly and weakens adrenalin, otherwise heart blame skips come out cannot.───內(nèi)啡肽能使神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)鎮(zhèn)靜下來和削弱腎上腺素的影響，否則心臟非蹦出來不可。
87 、After CPB surgery, the general morbidity of neurological complications (NC) was 1.44%(146/10 173), of which CVDC accounted for 59.58%(87/146).───心臟手術(shù)后神經(jīng)系并發(fā)癥的總發(fā)生率為1.44%，其中腦血管病占59.58%。
88 、Dsygraphia is a neurological disorder that generally appears when children are first learning to write.───書寫困難是一種神經(jīng)性紊亂，通常出現(xiàn)在孩子第一次學(xué)習(xí)寫字的時(shí)候。
89 、There are some theories about a neurological basis.─── 在神經(jīng)學(xué)基礎(chǔ)層面上有一些相關(guān)的理論
90 、A strange neurological disease was killing the Fore people of papua New Guinea Eastern Highlands---especially the women and children.───一種奇怪的神經(jīng)疾病曾致死巴布亞新幾內(nèi)亞東部高地的弗爾族人(Fore)，特別是婦女和兒童。
英語語言學(xué)指的是什么
就像你學(xué)語文要掌握他的語法，怎樣寫更優(yōu)美等等。。。
要去研究它。。
英語語言學(xué)指的是什么
語言學(xué)是對語言的系統(tǒng)研究，對于一個(gè)學(xué)習(xí)英語的人來說，應(yīng)該懂一點(diǎn)語言學(xué)的知識(shí)，它可以在理論上對學(xué)習(xí)語言有指導(dǎo)作用，有助于更好的學(xué)習(xí)語言，下面介紹一點(diǎn)語言學(xué)知識(shí)。
I. Introduction
1. What is Language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
2. What is Linguistics(語言學(xué))
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
3.Some Basic Distinctions(區(qū)分) in Linguistics
3.1 Speech and Writing
One general principle(原則) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范疇) and uses that speech does not have.
3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(說明性)
A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
3.3 Synchronic(共時(shí)) and Diachronic(歷時(shí)) Studies
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
3.4 Langue(語言) and Parole(言語)
This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索緒爾）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(實(shí)際的) language, or realization of langue.
3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行為)
Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(發(fā)聲).
4.The Scope of Linguistics
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.
Phonetics(語音學(xué)) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.
Phonology(音韻學(xué)) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.
Morphology(詞法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.
Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
Semantics(語義學(xué)) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.
Applied linguistics(應(yīng)用語言學(xué)) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.
Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.
Historical Linguistics(歷史語言學(xué)) is the study of language changes.
Anthropological linguistics(人文語言學(xué)) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
Neurolinguistics(神經(jīng)語言學(xué)) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.
Mathematical linguistics(數(shù)學(xué)語言學(xué)) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.
Computational linguistics(計(jì)算語言學(xué)) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.
II. Phonetics(語音學(xué)）
1. scope of phonetics
Speech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:
Articulatory phonetics(發(fā)音語音學(xué)）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(協(xié)調(diào)） in the process.
Auditory phonetics （聽覺語音學(xué)）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(調(diào)節(jié)） by the ear, the auditory nerve(神經(jīng)） and the brain.
Acoustic phonetics (聲學(xué)語音學(xué)） we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（傳送） between mouth and ear.
2. The vocal organs
The vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(氣流發(fā)生器官） the producer of voice（聲音發(fā)生器官） and the resonating cavities.（聲音共振器官）
3. Consonants(輔音）
Places of articulation(發(fā)音部位）: bilabial,(雙唇） Labiodentals,（唇齒） dental,（齒） alveolar,（齒齦） retroflex,（卷舌） palate-alveolar,（上齒齦） palatal,（上顎） velar,（軟腭） uvular,（小舌） glottal(聲門）
Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破） nasal,（鼻音） trill,（顫音） lateral,（邊音） fricative,（摩擦） approximant,（近似音） affricate（破擦）
4. Vowels (元音）
The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)
III. Phonology（音韻學(xué)）
1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有區(qū)別的） sound in a language.
2. Allophones(音位變體）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.
3. Minimal pairs(最小對立體）： word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.
4. Free variation (自由變異）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(環(huán)境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.
5. Complementary distribution(補(bǔ)充分類）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment
6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性質(zhì)） of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音節(jié)）， stress,（重音） word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音調(diào)）and intonation（語調(diào)）.
IV. Morphology（詞法）
1. inflection(構(gòu)形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折詞綴）
2. Word-formation(構(gòu)詞）：the processes(過程） of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明詞法關(guān)系） They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.
3. Morpheme(詞素）： the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.
4. Allomorph(同質(zhì)異象變體）： some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.
5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(詞根） affix（詞綴） and stem（詞干）.
6. Lexicon(語言詞匯）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.
7. Closed-class words(封閉性） and open-class words(開放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(實(shí)際上） indefinite or unlimited.
8. Word class(詞性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.
9. Lexeme(詞位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.
10. Idiom(習(xí)語，成語）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(詞序） which is semantically（語義上） and often syntactically(句法上） restricted.（限制）
11. Collocation(搭配）： the habitual(習(xí)慣的） co-occurrences （同時(shí)出現(xiàn)）of individual lexical items.
V. Syntax (句法）
1. Positional relation or word order（詞序）：the sequential(順序） arrangement of words in a language.
2. Construction or constituent (句子結(jié)構(gòu)）： the overall process of internal (內(nèi)部）organization of a grammatical unit .
3. Syntactic function(句法功能）： the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修飾語） complements（補(bǔ)語）, etc.
4. Category(范疇）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.
5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.
6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.
7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.
VI. Semantics
1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主義）：Following F. De Saussure(索學(xué)爾）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的） "associative" bond.（相關(guān)聯(lián)系）
2. Mechanism(機(jī)械主義）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布魯費(fèi)爾德） for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力現(xiàn)象）
3. Contextualism （語境主義）：It is based on the presumption(假定） that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.
4. Behaviorism (行為主義）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定義）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景） in which the speaker utters（說話） it and the response（反應(yīng)） it calls forth in the hearer."
5. functionalism (功能主義）：Functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格學(xué)派） linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（爭辯） that meaning could only be interpreted（解釋） from its use or function in social life.
6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同義詞），antonymy(反義詞）,hyponymy(下層次）Polysemy(一詞多義）and Homonymy (同音異義詞）
7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分） analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意義成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.
VII. Language Variation (語言變化）
1. Lexical change(詞匯的變化）：changes in lexis.
2. Invention: (新造詞）new entities.
3. Compounding:(合成詞）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.
4. Blending: (混合詞）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.
5. Abbreviation or clipping:(縮寫）A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part.
6. acronym:(取首字母的縮寫詞）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修飾） headword.
7. Metanalysis:(再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.
8. Back-formation:(逆構(gòu)詞） It refers to an abnormal(非正常） type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉） an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.
9. Analogical creation:(類比造詞）It can account for（說明） the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(結(jié)合） of some English verbs.
10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.
11. Phonological change(音變）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音） addition,（加音） assimilation,（ 同化）dissimilation.（異化）
12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（詞法） and syntax（句法） are listed under this heading.
13. Semantic change:(語義變化）It includes broadening,（語義擴(kuò)大） narrowing,（語義縮?。?meaning shift,（意義轉(zhuǎn)化） class shift（詞性轉(zhuǎn)換） and folk etymology.（詞源變化）
14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.